Paraphrenia
Late-Onset Schizophrenia-Like Psychosis
BY: T. Franklin Murphy | June 1, 2022
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Paraphrenia, also known as very late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis, is a mental illness characterized by the afflicted person experiencing mental delusions and hallucinations that develop late in life. Paraphrenia is a diagnostically controversial issue since there is no standardized criteria. Paraphrenia has never been and continues to be absent from the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) nor the ICD (International Classification of Diseases).
There is also ongoing debate over the relation of paraphrenia to schizophrenia. Two significant differences between the two diseases are age of onset, and the notable absence of personality, emotional, and volitional disruptions in late life paraphrenia. Psychiatrists often diagnose patients possessing symptoms of paraphrenia as having one of the following:
Recently, mental health professionals prefer classifying the disease previously known as paraphrenia as very late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis. Key Definition:Paraphrenia is a mental illness characterized by the afflicted person experiencing mental delusions and hallucinations that develop later in life. SymptomsThe main symptoms of paraphrenia are paranoid delusions and hallucinations. The delusions often center around the inflicted person suffering from undeserved persecution. However, delusions may also be erotic, hypochondriacal, or grandiose in nature.
Most hallucinations experienced by those suffering from paraphrenia are auditory. Paraphrenia is notably different from schizophrenia, while paraphrenia shares the positive symptomology of delusions, paraphrenia does not include the negative symptomology of personality and emotional deterioration. Individuals with schizophrenia personalities, deteriorating as the disease progresses. Individuals with paraphrenia often maintain a well-preserved personality and affective response, continuing to function in the community. History of ParaphreniaEarly Mentions of ParaphreniaThe term paraphrenia originated in the 17th century from the word paraphrenitis—a term used to describe a from of madness caused by inflammation to the diaphragm (Casanova, 2010).
Karl Ludwig KahlbaumThe term paraphrenia was popularized by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum in 1863, describing the tendency of certain psychiatric disorders to occur during certain transitional periods in life. Kahlbaum categorized paraphrenia with two subgroups:
Emil KraepelinDuring the early twentieth century (1912-1913), Emil Kraepelin further developed the term paraphrenia. His research and writings introduced the term paraphrenia similar to our current use and understanding of the term today. He describe paraphrenia as a disease containing many of the symptoms of schizophrenia but lacking a deterioration and thought.
Kraepelin divided his concept of paraphrenia into four large forms:
Systemized ParaphreniaParaphrenia systematica is characterized by gradual development of persecutory delusions with grandiose ideas appearing in the latter stages of the disease. The personality remains largely intact.
Expansive ParaphreniaExpansive paraphrenia is marked by 'exalted ideas of grandeur with a preponderant elevated mood.' In this form of paraphrenia hallucinations are almost always present, often religious or erotic in nature.
Confabulatory ParaphreniaConfabulatory paraphrenia is marked by falsification of memories. The delusions of persecution go back to the patient's childhood.
Fantastic ParaphreniaParaphrenia fantastic is 'dominated by exalted productions of marked fantastic, loosely connected, changeable ideas'. Delusions of persecution gradually develop as the disease progresses (1914).
Questions and DebatesA few years after Kraepelin published his findings, his conclusions were challenged by W. Mayer. Many of Kraepelin's subjects diagnosed with paraphrenia systematica eventually developed schizophrenia. While Mayer's findings were later disputed and his methods of study not reproducible, the doubt he created over Kraepelin's studies of paraphrenia lingered.
Alternate NamesSchizophrenia disorders arising in old age may be called by several different names or diagnosed as other diseases on the schizophrenia spectrum. Often paraphrenia is diagnosed as very late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis. Martin Roth, an influential contributor to paraphrenia studies, referred to it as late paraphrenia.
DiagnosisSince paraphrenia is not included in any edition of the DSM or ICD there is no standard format for diagnosing paraphrenia. Many studies rely on Martin Roth's 1955 criteria for diagnosis. In 1999, Arun V. Ravindran et al. redefined paraphrenia and published a more detailed standard for identifying paraphrenia in patients.
RothMartin Roth's Criteria for Paraphrenia
RavindranArun V. Ravindran's Criteria for Paraphrenia
1. A delusional disorder of at least six months duration characterized by the following:
a. Preoccupation with one or more semi-systematized delusions, often accompanied by auditory hallucinations. b. Affect notably well-preserved and appropriate. Ability to maintain rapport with others. c. None of: i. Intellectual deterioration ii. Visual hallucinations iii. Incoherence iv. Flat or grossly inappropriate affect v. Grossly disorganized behavior at times other than during the acute episode. d. Disturbance of behavior understandable in relation to the content of the delusions and hallucinations. e. Only partly meets criterion A for schizophrenia. No significant organic brain disorder. CausesPathological CorrelatesModern research has discovered a prevalence of neurofibrillary tangles in older patients diagnosed with late-onset schizophrenia. Neurofibrillary tangles are also pathologically associated with Alzheimer's disease. However, in paraphrenia, the presence of neurofibrillary tangles occurs without the patent cell loss associated with Alzheimer's disease (Casanova, 2010).
TraumaSome research suggests that neurological trauma may increase the risk of paraphrenia. Divya Bharat wrote on his medical blog that "when the brain undergoes significant physical modifications, due to a tumour, stroke, grave injury, nerve or blood vessel damage, other neurodegenerative conditions, it affects its normal functioning and response to external stimuli. These abnormal instances could give rise to paraphrenia" (2020).
Several studies over the last 30 years have suggested a structural basis for late onset psychosis. One study found in several patients previously diagnosis of paraphrenia there was a subtle structural brain injury present that could only be detected by CT or MRI scanning and neuropsychological testing (Haslett, et al. 1992). Risk FactorsParaphrenia patients tend to be women with onset of the disease occurring after 30 years of age. Studies suggest that social isolation, physical handicaps, and maladaptive personalities, may increase risk of paraphrenia.
Currently, there is insufficient criteria to predictably identify those who will later suffer from this disease. Some modern authors, pointing to the reduced genetic load of paraphrenia patients compared to schizophrenia patients, suggest a larger environmental influence is required before the manifestations of the disorder (Casanova, 2010). Haslett et al. citing their findings from researching paraphrenia research wrote "most authors concluded that the mode of inheritances of the late-onset disorder, like schizophrenia, is probably polygenic with many nongenetic factors being influential" (2016). This is in line with the diathesis stress theory. "The diathesis–stress model explores how biological or genetic traits (diatheses) interact with environmental influences (stressors) to produce disorders such as depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia." According to the Diathesis-stress model "Predispositions interact with stressful experiences. When life stresses disrupt our psychological equilibrium (or homeostasis), the stressful event may catalyze development of predispositioned disorders" (Murphy, 2021). PrognosisIndividuals who develop paraphrenia have a life expectancy similar to the normal population. Recovery from the psychotic symptoms of paraphrenia is rare. Paraphrenia patients suffer a slow deterioration of cognitive functions. In some cases, the disorder leads to dementia.
TreatmentParaphrenia is often treated with psychotropic drugs. Often pharmaceutical intervention can alleviate many of the symptoms. Some forms of cognitive behavior therapy has had positive results in helping patients live with their disease. Arata Sato and Shin Ihda report in a 2002 article that "as for the treatments, including pharmaceutical responsiveness of late paraphrenia, we may tentatively say that a consensus has not been reached in any way."
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References:Bridge, T., & Wyatt, R. (1980). Paraphrenia: Paranoid States of Late Life. II. American Research. Journal of American Geriatrics Society, 28(5), 201-205.
Bharat, Divya (2020). Paraphrenia: Causes, Symptoms And Treatment. netmeds.com. Published 7-27-2020. Accessed 5-27-2022. Casanova, M. (2010). The Pathology of Paraphrenia. Current Psychiatry Reports, 12(3), 196-201. Hassett, D., Keks, N., Jackson, H., & Copolov, D. (2016). The Diagnostic Validity of Paraphrenia: . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 26(1), 18-29. Howard, R., Almeida, O., & Levy, R. (1993). Schizophrenic Symptoms in Late Paraphrenia. Psychopathology, 26(2), 95-101. Karpas, M. (1914). Kraepelin's Conception of Paraphrenia. JAMA, LXIII (9), 766-769. Murphy, T. Franklin (2021). Diathesis-Stress Model. Flourishing Life Society. Published 9-7-2021. Accessed 6-1-2022. Ravindran, A., Yatham, L., & Munro, A. (1999). Paraphrenia Redefined. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 44(2), 133-137. Sato, A., & Ihda, S. (2002). Paraphrenia and Late Paraphrenia. Psychogeriatrics, 2(1), |
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